"Moriori and Māori: The Linguistic Evidence" In Sutton (ed.) (which? Only around 9,000 people speak only in Māori. Thomas Kendall published a book in 1815 entitled A korao no New Zealand, which in modern orthography and usage would be He Kōrero nō Aotearoa. Some pidgins have come to be extensively used, such as Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea and the pidgins of the West African coast. Pidgins have been particularly associated with areas settled by European traders; examples have been Chinook Jargon, a lingua franca based on an American Indian language and English that was formerly used in Washington and Oregon, and Beach-la-mar, an English-based pidgin of parts of the South Seas. "Does Māori have a closest relative?" That is, on the last four moras. Some 50,000 people report that they speak the language well or very well; Negation for copulative phrases, topicalized and equative phrases, the ongoing loss of older native speakers who have spearheaded the, complacency brought about by the very existence of the institutions which drove the revival, concerns about quality, with the supply of good teachers never matching demand (even while that demand has been shrinking), excessive regulation and centralised control, which has alienated some of those involved in the movement. This followed a five-fold increase in complaints to the BSA, despite the use of the Māori language in itself not breaching any broadcasting standards. [10], The spelling ⟨Maori⟩ (without a macron) is standard in English outside New Zealand in both general and linguistic usage. Māori pronouns and possessives further distinguish exclusive "we" from inclusive "we", second and third. Bauer even raised the possibility of analysing Māori as really having six vowel phonemes. an ongoing lack of educational resources needed to teach the full curriculum in te reo Māori. Some of these phonemes occupy large spaces in the anatomical vowel triangle (actually a trapezoid) of tongue positions. Although it is commonly claimed that vowel realisations (pronunciations) in Māori show little variation, linguistic research has shown this not to be the case.[68]. [96] In general, bases used as qualifiers follow the base they qualify, e.g. Like most languages, English has many racist expressions, words, and phrases that are unfortunately used widely and frequently. Anne Salmond[51] records aghee for aki (In the year 1773, from the North Island East Coast, p. 98), Toogee and E tanga roak for Tuki and Tangaroa (1793, Northland, p216), Kokramea, Kakramea for Kakaramea (1801, Hauraki, p261), toges for toki(s), Wannugu for Uenuku and gumera for kumara (1801, Hauraki, p261, p266, p269), Weygate for Waikato (1801, Hauraki, p277), Bunga Bunga for pungapunga, tubua for tupua and gure for kurī (1801, Hauraki, p279), as well as Tabooha for Te Puhi (1823, Northern Northland, p385). Mātou refers to the speaker and others but not the person or persons spoken to ("I and some others but not you"), and tātou refers to the speaker, the person or persons spoken to and everyone else ("you, I and others"):[111], The possessive pronouns vary according to person, number, clusivity, and possessive class (a class or o class). 'I was beaten until I bled' By the 1980s, fewer than 20 per cent of Māori spoke the language well enough to be classed as native speakers. [9] This orthography continues in use, with only two major changes: the addition of wh to distinguish the voiceless bilabial fricative phoneme from the labio-velar phoneme /w/; and the consistent marking of long vowels. [82] Westland's Waitangitaona River became two distinct rivers after an avulsion, each named in a differing dialect. However, this could just be due to more Māori immigrants leaving to Australia.[48]. Benton, R. A. K. R. Howe. Languages are used by human beings to communicate with other human beings. They are also far less arbitrary than most of the lexical components of language, and they are much nearer the cries of animals produced under similar circumstances and serve similar expressive and communicative purposes (as far as animals’ intentions and behaviour can be understood). "Education, language decline and language revitalisation: The case of Maori in New Zealand". It started this period as the predominant language of New Zealand. Therefore, Māori-speakers almost always communicate bilingually, with New Zealand English as either their first or second language. This reflects [the Tribunal's] concern that te reo revival will not work if responsibility for setting the direction is not shared with Māori. The contribution of bodily gestures to the total meaning of a conversation is in part culturally determined and differs in different communities. You might not even be … The English language was established in New Zealand by colonists during the 19th century. [5] The language became increasingly heard in the media and in politics. From this period greater emphasis was placed on Māori learning English, but it was not until the migration of Māori to urban areas after the Second World War that the number of speakers of Māori began to decline rapidly. In parts of the Far North, ⟨wh⟩ has merged with ⟨w⟩. According to legend, Māori came to New Zealand from Hawaiki. For younger speakers, they are both [a]. This will ensure that public bodies are compelled to contribute to, These regional public bodies and schools must also consult, A considerable number of governmental and non-governmental organisations continue to use the older spelling of ⟨, Double vowels are also used instead of macrons in long vowels resultant from. A fluent speaker of Māori has no problem understanding other dialects. (1994), pp. However, stressed moras are longer than unstressed moras, so the word does not have the precision in Māori that it does in some other languages. Tok Pisin (English: / t ɒ k ˈ p ɪ s ɪ n /, Tok Pisin /ˌtok piˈsin/), often referred to by English speakers as "New Guinea Pidgin" or simply "Pidgin", is a creole language spoken throughout Papua New Guinea.It is an official language of Papua New Guinea and the most widely used language in the country. "Most of the tribal variation in grammar is a matter of preferences: speakers of one area might prefer one grammatical form to another, but are likely on occasion to use the non-preferred form, and at least to recognise and understand it. [84] This same elision is found in numerous other southern placenames, such as the two small settlements called The Kaik (from the term for a fishing village, kainga in standard Māori), near Palmerston and Akaroa, and the early spelling of Lake Wakatipu as Wagadib. First languages arising in this way from artificially created pidgins are called creoles. English is the first language of the majority of the population.. Japanese r). The indefinite article he is usually positioned at the beginning of the phrase in which it is used. [90] These also combine with the pronouns. Another allophone is the bilabial fricative, IPA [ɸ], which is usually supposed to be the sole pre-European pronunciation, although linguists are not sure of the truth of this supposition. For older speakers, long vowels tend to be more peripheral and short vowels more centralised, especially with the low vowel, which is long [aː] but short [ɐ]. WORDS.TXT - Free ebook download as Text File (.txt), PDF File (.pdf) or read book online for free. [33] This change recognises the issue of Māori revitalisation as one of indigenous self-determination, instead of the job of the government to identify what would be best for the language and Māori people of New Zealand. Biggs proposed that historically there were two major dialect groups, North Island and South Island, and that South Island Māori is extinct. For example, the kiwi, the national bird, takes its name from te reo. A language is a symbol system. While the northern river was named the Waitangitāhuna River, the southern river became the Waitakitāhuna-ki-te-Toka, using the more usual southern spelling (ki-te-Toka, "of the south", would be rendered ki-te-Tonga in standard Māori). [47] The rest use only a few words or phrases (passive bilingualism). ), and tētahi, (a certain). [5], As the status and prestige of the language rose, so did the demand for language classes. [33], There is however evidence that the revitalisation efforts are taking hold, as can be seen in the teaching of te reo in the school curriculum, the use of Māori as an instructional language, and the supportive ideologies surrounding these efforts. Occasional and inconsistent vowel-length markings occur in 19th-century manuscripts and newspapers written by Māori, including macron-like diacritics and doubling of letters. [116] If the sentence is topicalized (agent topic, only in non-present sentences) the particle nā begins the sentence (past tense) or the mā (future, imperfective) followed by the agent/subject. The difference between exclusive and inclusive lies in the treatment of the person addressed. While the preceding are all distinct languages, they remain similar enough that Tupaia, a Tahitian travelling with Captain James Cook in 1769–1770, communicated effectively with Māori. As a result, many Māori children failed to learn their ancestral language, and generations of non-Māori-speaking Māori emerged.[28]. [21], In 2008, Land Information New Zealand published the first list of official place names with macrons, which indicate long vowels. Biggs identifies five types of bases. D. the languages of cultivators in Papua New Guinea and foragers in Australia had more basic color terms than did European and Asian languages. [12][18] Māori may be spoken in judicial proceedings, but any party wishing to do so must notify the court in advance to ensure an interpreter is available. Several of them are shown at Blackman, A. [98] Grammars generally refer to them as "stative verbs". Whether your native language is English, Dutch, Spanish, French, Chinese, Italian or something completely different, chances are, you will meet an Aruban that could very easily communicate with you. The Endeavour Journal of Sir Joseph Banks, 9 October 1769: "we again advancd to the river side with Tupia, who now found that the language of the people was so like his own that he could tolerably well understand them and they him.". "Maori education: Revolution and transformative action". Now its sole official name is Aoraki / Mount Cook, which favours the local dialect form. For example, the English fricatives /tʃ/, /dʒ/, and /s/ are replaced by /h/, /f/ becomes /p/, and /l/ becomes /ɾ/ (the /l/ is sometimes retained in the southern dialect, as noted below). The plural is formed just by dropping the t: tēnei (this), ēnei (these). However, younger Māori speakers tend to aspirate /p, t, k/ as in English. In Sutton (Ed. He aha tēnā paku rārangi? [29] These include: Based on the principles of partnership, Māori-speaking government, general revitalisation and dialectal protective policy, and adequate resourcing, the Waitangi Tribunal has recommended "four fundamental changes":[30], The changes set forth by the Tribunal are merely recommendations; they are not binding upon government. Although Māori is mostly analytical there are several derivational affixes: From missionary times, Māori used adaptations of English names for days of the week and for months of the year. who? For the television channel, see, The New Oxford American Dictionary (Third Edition); Collins English Dictionary – Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition; Dictionary.com. But there are other symbol systems recognized and institutionalized in the different cultures of humankind. However, elsewhere it is sometimes trilled. [8] The missionaries of the Church Missionary Society (CMS) did not have a high regard for this book. [5], The 2013 New Zealand census reported that about 149,000 people, or 3.7% of the New Zealand population, could hold a conversation in Māori about everyday things. A protester gesturing at a police officer in Male, Maldives, 2012. Macrons (tohutō) are now the standard means of indicating long vowels,[56] after becoming the favoured option of the Māori Language Commission—set up by the Māori Language Act 1987 to act as the authority for Māori spelling and orthography. Sign language is most often used in deaf communities, although it is also sometimes used by hearing people when they are unable to communicate verbally. English speakers also tend to hear Māori /r/ as English /l/ in certain positions (cf. [27] Some Māori children who spoke Te Reo at school were physically disciplined which contributed to the decline in the Te Reo language in the 1940s to 1980s. [34], The policies for language revitalisation have been changing in attempts to improve Māori language use and have been working with suggestions from the Waitangi Tribunal on the best ways to implement the revitalisation. Syllables in Māori have one of the following forms: V, VV, CV, CVV. [108], The proper article a is used for personal nouns. Surveys from 2018 indicated that "the Māori language currently enjoys a high status in Māori society and also positive acceptance by the majority of non-Māori New Zealanders". "Bilingual education and the survival of the Maori language". When individuals speak, they do not normally confine themselves to the mere emission of speech sounds. [25], Before 1880, some Māori parliamentarians suffered disadvantages because Parliament's proceedings took place in English. [16] Most government departments and agencies have bilingual names—for example, the Department of Internal Affairs is alternatively Te Tari Taiwhenua—and places such as local government offices and public libraries display bilingual signs and use bilingual stationery. Missionaries arriving from about 1814 learned to speak Māori, and introduced the Latin alphabet. Benton, R. A. Farsi . Compound words (such as names) may have a stressed syllable in each component word. Punjabi . The modern Māori alphabet has 15 letters, two of which are digraphs: A E H I K M N O P R T U W NG and WH. [57][58] Most media now use macrons; Stuff websites and newspapers since 2017,[59] TVNZ[60] and NZME websites and newspapers since 2018. 123–135. Vowel length is phonemic; but four of the five long vowels occur in only a handful of word roots, the exception being /aː/. Notable among creoles is Haitian Creole, which grew primarily from the interactions between French colonists and enslaved Africans on Haiti’s plantations. Increasingly New Zealand is referred to by the Māori name Aotearoa ("land of the long white cloud"), though originally this referred only to the North Island. The personal nouns do not have the definite or indefinite articles on the proper article unless it is an important part of its name. The following examples show that vowel length is phonemic in Māori: Māori devised ways to mark vowel length, sporadically at first. Sometimes, as the result of relatively permanent settlement and the intermixture of two speech communities, a pidgin becomes the first language of later generations, ultimately displacing both the original languages. Failure to notify in advance does not preclude the party speaking in Māori, but the court must be adjourned until an interpreter is available and the party may be held liable for the costs of the delay. "Māori Dialectology and the Settlement of New Zealand". Once such a language becomes the first or only language of many people, it must acquire the resources (i.e., the complexity) to respond adequately to all the requirements of a natural language. The alphabet devised at Cambridge University does not mark vowel length. [70] With younger speakers, /ai, au/ start with a higher vowel than the [a] of /ae, ao/. This happens when people speaking two different languages have to work together, usually in some form of trade relation or administrative routine. (1994), pp. For older speakers, /u/ is only fronted after /t/; elsewhere it is [u]. "Māori Dialectology and the Settlement of New Zealand" In Sutton (ed.) Estimates of the number of speakers vary: the 1996 census reported 160,000,[45] while other estimates have reported as few as 10,000 fluent adult speakers in 1995 according to the Māori Language Commission. Like all other Polynesian languages, Māori has a rich array of particles, which include verbal particles, pronouns, locative particles, articles and possessives. Kohanga reo Māori-immersion kindergartens throughout New Zealand use Māori exclusively. "Reassessing Māori Regeneration". By signing up for this email, you are agreeing to news, offers, and information from Encyclopaedia Britannica. [81] Maarire Goodall and George Griffiths say there is also a voicing of k to g – this is why the region of Otago (southern dialect) and the settlement it is named after – Otakou (standard Māori) – vary in spelling (the pronunciation of the latter having changed over time to accommodate the northern spelling). In Sutton (Ed. Although some sign languages are related to spoken languages, often within a geographic community (such as American [spoken] English and American Sign Language), they are not necessarily direct translations. Until the Second World War (1939–1945), most Māori people spoke Māori as their first language. (1984). Consonants seem to have caused the most difficulty, but medial and final vowels are often missing in early sources. [115], A definite and declarative sentence (may be a copulative sentence) begins with the declarative particle ko. "The Systematisation of Tradition: Maori Culture as a Strategic Resource". Creoles differ from pidgins in that, as first languages, they are subject to the natural processes of change like any other language (see below Linguistic change), and, despite the deliberately simplified form of the original pidgin, creoles develop their own complexities in the course of generations. URL: Biggs, Bruce (1994). [47], Urbanisation after the Second World War led to widespread language shift from Māori predominance (with Māori the primary language of the rural whānau) to English predominance (English serving as the primary language in the Pākehā cities). /ŋ/ can come at the beginning of a word (like sing-along without the "si"), which is difficult for English speakers outside of New Zealand to manage. Māori (/ ˈ m aʊ r i /; Māori pronunciation: [ˈ m aː ɔ ɾ i] listen), also known as te reo ('the language'), is an Eastern Polynesian language spoken by the Māori people, the indigenous population of New Zealand.Closely related to Cook Islands Māori, Tuamotuan, and Tahitian, it gained recognition as one of New Zealand's official languages in 1987. Harlow, Ray (1994). Smith, G. H. (2003). Bauer, Winifred; Evans, Te Kareongawai & Parker, William (2001). [9] Māori distinguishes between long and short vowels; modern written texts usually mark the long vowels with a macron. In these cases the word order changes to SVO. Harlow, Ray (1994). Provencal . These settlers probably arrived by about AD 1280 (see Māori origins). As reported in the 2013 national census, only 21.31 per cent of Māori (self-identified) had a conversational knowledge of the language, and only around 6.5 per cent of those speakers, 1.4 per cent of the total Māori population, spoke the Māori language only. The Māori embraced literacy enthusiastically, and missionaries reported in the 1820s that Māori all over the country taught each other to read and write, using sometimes quite innovative materials in the absence of paper, such as leaves and charcoal, and flax. [34] Albury argues that these results come from the language either not being used enough in common discourse, or from the fact that the number of speakers was inadequate for future language development. In long sentences, the final syllable before a pause may have a stress in preference to the normal stressed syllable. [17], An interpreter is on hand at sessions of the New Zealand Parliament for instances when a Member wishes to speak in Māori. In New Zealand, the Māori language is often referred to as te reo [tɛ ˈɾɛ.ɔ] ('the language'), short for te reo Māori. The subject is usually raised in negative phrases, although this is not obligatory. Pronouns have singular, dual and plural number. Bauer 1997: 532 lists seven allophones (variant pronunciations). The answers may be āe (yes) or kāo (no).[127]. In borrowings from English, many consonants are substituted by the nearest available Māori consonant. Polish . These include laughter, shouts and screams of joy, fear, pain, and so forth, and conventional expressions of disgust, triumph, and so on, traditionally spelled ugh!, ha ha!, and so on, in English. "[80] Vocabulary and pronunciation vary to a greater extent, but this does not pose barriers to communication. "The, Treaty of Waitangi claims and settlements, Māori Language Week (Te Wiki o te Reo Māori), "Ngā puna kōrero: Where Māori speak te reo – infographic", "Google and Disney join rush to cash in as Māori goes mainstream", "Māori Language Act 1987 No 176 (as at 30 April 2016), Public Act Contents – New Zealand Legislation", New Zealand Department of Internal Affairs, Definitions of Māori words used in New Zealand English, "Dedicated Parliamentary Seats for Indigenous Peoples: Political Representation as an Element of Indigenous Self-Determination", "Te Ture mō Te Reo Māori 2016 No 17 (as at 01 March 2017), Public Act 7 Right to speak Māori in legal proceedings – New Zealand Legislation", "New Zealand Gazetteer of Official Geographic Names", https://teara.govt.nz/en/ideas-about-maori-origins/page-5, "The native schools system, 1867 to 1969", "Rosina Wiparata: A Legacy of Māori Language Education", "Harry Potter to be translated into te reo Māori", "Te reo Māori card game Tākaro moves into production after kickstarter campaign", "Encouraging te reo Māori through hand-crafted taonga for children", "BSA signals end to te reo Māori complaints", https://www.radionz.co.nz/news/te-manu-korihi/118294/rapanui-expedition-reveals-similarities-to-te-reo-maori, "Māori Language Issues – Te Taura Whiri i te Reo Māori", "Census 2016, Language spoken at home by Sex (SA2+)", "Sample of Writing by Shunghie [Hongi Hika] on board the Active", "What's that little line? [122] The most common negator is kāhore, which may occur in one of four forms, with the kāo form only being used in response to a question. /h/ is pronounced as a glottal stop, [ʔ], and the sound of ⟨wh⟩ as [ʔw], in some western areas of North Island. In Tūhoe and the Eastern Bay of Plenty (northeastern North Island) ⟨ng⟩ has merged with ⟨n⟩. More loosely, because music itself can convey and arouse emotions and certain musical forms and structures are often associated with certain types of feeling, one frequently reads of the “language of music” or even of “the grammar of music.” The terms language and grammar are here being used metaphorically, however, if only because no symbol system other than language has the same potential of infinite productivity, extension, and precision. Sissons, J. Spolsky, B.. (2003). Their language and its dialects developed in isolation until the 19th century. [6], The level of competence of self-professed Māori speakers varies from minimal to total. Arubans are especially fluent in Papiamento and Dutch, as those are the official languages of Aruba. All possible CV combinations are grammatical, though wo, who, wu, and whu occur only in a few loanwords from English such as wuru, "wool" and whutuporo, "football".[76]. Biggs (1998) developed an analysis that the basic unit of Māori speech is the phrase rather than the word. As in many other Polynesian languages, e.g., Hawaiian, the rendering of loanwords from English includes representing every English consonant of the loanword (using the native consonant inventory; English has 24 consonants to 10 for Māori) and breaking up consonant clusters.